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Introductory Notes

BOOK II. KHÎ WÛ LUN.

Mr. Balfour has translated this title by 'Essay on the Uniformity of All Things;' and, the subject of the Book being thus misconceived, his translation of it could not fail to be very incorrect. The Chinese critics, I may say without exception, construe the title as I have done. The second and third characters, Wû Lun, are taken together, and mean 'Discussions about Things,' equivalent to our 'Controversies.' They are under the government of the first character Khî, used as a verb, with the signification of 'Harmonising,' or 'Adjusting.' Let me illustrate this by condensing a passage from the 'Supplementary Commentary of a Mr. Kang, a sub-secretary of the Imperial Chancery,' of the Ming dynasty (###). He says, 'What Kwang-dze calls "Discussions about Things" has reference to the various branches of the numerous schools, each of which has its own views, conflicting with the views of the others.' He goes on to show that if they would only adopt the method pointed out by Kwang-dze, 'their controversies would be adjusted (###) using the first Khî in the passive voice.

This then was the theme of our author in this Book. It must be left for the reader to discover from the translation how he pursues it. I pointed out a peculiarity in the former Book, that though the idea of the Tâo underlies it all, the term itself is never allowed to appear. Not only does the same idea underlie this Book, but the name is frequently employed. The Tâo is the panacea for the evils of controversy, the solvent through the use of which the different views of men may be made to disappear.

That the Tâo is not a Personal name in the conception of Kwang-dze is seen in several passages. We have not to go beyond the phenomena of nature to discover the reason of their being what they are; nor have we to go beyond the bigoted egoism and vaingloriousness of controversialists to find the explanation of their discussions, various as these are, and confounding like the sounds of the wind among the trees of a forest. To man, neither in nature nor in the sphere of knowledge, is there any other 'Heaven' but what belongs to his own mind. That is his only 'True Ruler.' If there be any other, we do not see His form, nor any traces of His acting. Things come about in their proper course. We cannot advance any proof of Creation. Whether we assume that there was something 'in the beginning' or nothing, we are equally landed in contradiction and absurdity. Let us stop at the limit of what we know, and not try to advance a step beyond it.

Towards the end of the Book our author's agnosticism seems to reach its farthest point. All human experience is spoken of as a dream or as 'illusion.' He who calls another a dreamer does not know that he is not dreaming himself. One and another commentator discover in such utterances something very like the Buddhist doctrine that all life is but so much illusion (###). This notion has its consummation in the story with which the Book concludes. Kwang-dze had dreamt that he was a butterfly. When he awoke, and was himself again, he did not know whether he, Kwang Kâu, had been dreaming that he was a butterfly, or was now a butterfly dreaming that it was Kwang Kâu. And yet he adds that there must be a difference between Kâu and a butterfly, but he does not say what that difference is. But had he ever dreamt that he was a butterfly, so as to lose the consciousness of his personal identity as Kwang Kâu? I do not think so. One may, perhaps, lose that consciousness in the state of insanity; but the language of Young is not sufficiently guarded when he writes of

'Dreams, where thought, in fancy's maze, runs mad.'

When dreaming, our thoughts are not conditioned by the categories of time and space; but the conviction of our identity is never lost.

Book II
Part I Section II

Khi Wu Lun, or 'The Adjustment of Controversies¹.'

1. Nan-kwo Sze-khi² was seated, leaning forward on his stool. He was looking up to heaven and breathed gently, seeming to be in a trance, and to have lost all consciousness of any companion. (His disciple), Yen Khang Dze-yu³, who was in attendance and standing before him, said, 'What is this? Can the body be made to become thus like a withered tree, and the mind to become like slaked lime? His appearance as he leans forward on the stool to-day is such as I never saw him have before in the same position.' Dze-khi said, 'Yen, you do well to ask such a question, I had just now lost myself⁴; but how should you understand it? You⁵ of Man, but have not heard those of Earth; you may have heard the notes of Earth, but have not heard those of Heaven.'

Dze-yu said, 'I venture to ask from you a description of all these.' The reply was, 'When the breath of the Great Mass (of nature) comes strongly, it is called Wind. Sometimes it does not come so; but when it does, then from a myriad apertures there issues its excited noise;—have you not heard it in a prolonged gale? Take the projecting bluff of a mountain forest;—in the great trees, a hundred spans round, the apertures and cavities are like the nostrils, or the mouth, or the ears; now square, now round like a cup or a mortar; here like a wet footprint, and there like a large puddle. (The sounds issuing from them are like) those of fretted water, of the arrowy whizz, of the stern command, of the inhaling of the breath, of the shout, of the gruff note, of the deep wail, of the sad and piping note. The first notes are slight, and those that follow deeper, but in harmony with them. Gentle winds produce a small response; violent winds a great one. When the fierce gusts have passed away, all the apertures are empty (and still);—have you not seen this in the bending and quivering of the branches and leaves?'

Dze-yu said, 'The notes of Earth then are simply those which come from its myriad apertures; and the notes of Man may just be compared to those which (are brought from the tubes of) bamboo;—allow me to ask about the notes of Heaven⁶ .' Dze-khi replied, 'When (the wind) blows, (the sounds from) the myriad apertures are different, and (its cessation) makes them stop of themselves. Both of these things arise from (the wind and the apertures) themselves:—should there be any other agency that excites them?'

2. Great knowledge is wide and comprehensive; small knowledge is partial and restricted. Great speech is exact and complete; small speech is (merely) so much talk⁷ . When we sleep, the soul communicates with (what is external to us); when we awake, the body is set free. Our intercourse with others then leads to various activity, and daily there is the striving of mind with mind. There are hesitancies; deep difficulties; reservations; small apprehensions causing restless distress, and great apprehensions producing endless fears. Where their utterances are like arrows from a bow, we have those who feel it their charge to pronounce what is right and what is wrong.; where they are given out like the conditions of a covenant, we have those who maintain their views, determined to overcome. (The weakness of their arguments), like the decay (of things) in autumn and winter, shows the failing (of the minds of some) from day to day; or it is like their water which, once voided, cannot be gathered up again. Then their ideas seem as if fast bound with cords, showing that the mind is become like an old and dry moat, and that it is nigh to death, and cannot be restored to vigour and brightness.

Joy and anger, sadness and pleasure, anticipation and regret, fickleness and fixedness, vehemence and indolence, eagerness and tardiness;—(all these moods), like music from an empty tube, or mushrooms from the warm moisture, day and night succeed to one another and come before us, and we do not know whence they sprout. Let us stop! Let us stop! Can we expect to find out suddenly how they are produced?

If there were not (the views of) another, I should not have mine; if there were not I (with my views), his would be uncalled for:—this is nearly a true, statement of the case, but we do not know what it is that makes it be so. It might seem as if there would be a true Governor⁸ concerned in it, but we do not find any trace (of his presence and acting). That such an One could act so I believe; but we do not see His form. He has affections, but He has no form.

Given the body, with its hundred parts, its nine openings, and its six viscera, all complete in their places, which do I love the most? Do you love them all equally? or do you love some more than others? Is it not the case that they all perform the part of your servants and waiting women? All of them being such, are they not incompetent to rule one another? or do they take it in turns to be now ruler and now servants? There must be a true Ruler (among them) whether by searching you can find out His character or not, there is neither advantage nor hurt, so far as the truth of His operation is concerned. When once we have received the bodily form complete, its parts do not fail to perform their functions till the end comes. In conflict with things or in harmony with them, they pursue their course to the end, with the speed of a galloping horse which cannot be stopped;—is it not sad? To be constantly toiling all one's lifetime, without seeing the fruit of one's labour, and to be weary and worn out with his labour, without knowing where he is going to:—is it not a deplorable case? Men may say, 'But it is not death;' yet of what advantage is this? When the body is decomposed, the mind will be the same along with it:—must not the case be pronounced very deplorable¹⁰? Is the life of man indeed enveloped in such darkness? Is it I alone to whom it appears so? And does it not appear to be so to other men?

3. If we were to follow the judgments of the predetermined mind, who would be left alone and without a teacher¹¹? Not only would it be so with those who know the sequences (of knowledge and feeling) and make their own selection among them, but it would be so as well with the stupid and unthinking. For one who has not this determined mind, to have his affirmations and negations is like the case described in the saying, 'He went to Yueh to-day, and arrived at it yesterday¹².' It would be making what was not a fact to be a fact. But even the spirit-like Yu¹³ could not have known how to do this, and how should one like me be able to do it?

But speech is not like the blowing (of the wind) the speaker has (a meaning in) his words. If, however, what he says, be indeterminate (as from a mind not made up), does he then really speak or not? He thinks that his words are different from the chirpings of fledgelings; but is there any distinction between them or not? But how can the Tao be so obscured, that there should be 'a True' and 'a False' in it? How can speech be so obscured that there should be 'the Right' and 'the Wrong' about them? Where shall the Tao go to that it will not be found? Where shall speech be found that it will be inappropriate? Tao becomes obscured through the small comprehension (of the mind), and speech comes to be obscure through the vain-gloriousness (of the speaker). So it is that we have the contentions between the Literati¹⁴ and the Mohists¹⁵, the one side affirming what the other denies, and vice versa. If we would decide on their several affirmations and denials, no plan is like bringing the (proper) light (of the mind)¹⁶ to bear on them.

All subjects may be looked at from (two points of view),—from that and from this. If I look at a thing from another's point of view, I do not see it; only as I know it myself, do I know it. Hence it is said, 'That view comes from this; and this view is a consequence of that:'—which is the theory that that view and this—(the opposite views)—produce each the other¹⁷. Although it be so, there is affirmed now life and now death; now death and now life; now the admissibility of a thing and now its inadmissibility; now its inadmissibility and now its admissibility. (The disputants) now affirm and now deny; now deny and now affirm. Therefore sagely man does not pursue this method, but views things in the light of (his) Heaven¹⁸ (-ly nature), and hence forms his judgment of what is right.

This view is the same as that, and that view is the same as this. But that view involves both a right and a wrong; and this view involves also a right and a wrong:—are there indeed, or are there not the two views, that and this? They have not found their point of correspondency which is called the pivot of the Tao. As soon as one finds this pivot, he stands in the centre of the ring (of thought), where he can respond without end to the changing views;—without end to those affirming, and without end to those denying. Therefore I said, 'There is nothing like the proper light (of the mind).'

4. By means of a finger (of my own) to illustrate that the finger (of another) is not a finger is not so good a plan as to illustrate that it is not so by means of what is (acknowledged to be) not a finger; and by means of (what I call) a horse to illustrate that (what another calls) a horse is not so, is not so good a plan as to illustrate that it is not a horse, by means of what is (acknowledged to be) not a horse¹⁹. (All things in) heaven and earth may be (dealt with as) a finger; (each of) their myriads may be (dealt with as) a horse. Does a thing seem so to me? (I say that) it is so. Does it seem not so to me? (I say that) it is not so. A path is formed by (constant) treading on the ground. A thing is called by its name through the (constant) application of the name to it. How is it so? It is so because it is so. How is it not so? It is not so, because it is not so. Everything has its inherent character and its proper capability. There is nothing which has not these. Therefore, this being so, if we take a stalk of grain²⁰ and a (large) pillar, a loathsome (leper) and (a beauty like) Hsi Shih²¹, things large and things insecure, things crafty and things strange;—they may in the light of the Tao all be reduced to the same category (of opinion about them).

It was separation that led to completion; from completion ensued dissolution. But all things, without regard to their completion and dissolution, may again be comprehended in their unity;—it is only the far reaching in thought who know how to comprehend them in this unity. This being so, let us give up our devotion to our own views, and occupy ourselves with the ordinary views. These ordinary views are grounded on the use of things. (The study of that) use leads to the comprehensive judgment, and that judgment secures the success (of the inquiry). That success gained, we are near (to the object of our search), and there we stop. When we stop, and yet we do not know how it is so, we have what is called the Tao.

When we toil our spirits and intelligence, obstinately determined (to establish our own view), and do not know the agreement (which underlies it and the views of others), we have what is called 'In the morning three.' What is meant by that 'In the morning three?' A keeper of monkeys, in giving them out their acorns, (once) said, 'In the morning I will give you three (measures) and in the evening four.' This made them all angry, and he said, 'Very well. In the morning I will give you four and in the evening three.' His two proposals were substantially the same, but the result of the one was to make the creatures angry, and of the other to make them pleased:—an illustration of the point I am insisting on. Therefore the sagely man brings together a dispute in its affirmations and denials, and rests in the equal fashioning of Heaven²². Both sides of the question are admissible.

5. Among the men of old their knowledge reached the extreme point. What was that extreme point? Some held that at first there was not anything. This is the extreme point, the utmost point to which nothing can be added²³. A second class held that there was something, but without any responsive recognition²⁴ of it (on the part of men).

A third class held that there was such recognition, but there had not begun to be any expression of different opinions about it.

It was through the definite expression of different opinions about it that there ensued injury to (the doctrine of) the Tao. It was this injury to the (doctrine of the) Tao which led to the formation of (partial) preferences. Was it indeed after such preferences were formed that the injury came? or did the injury precede the rise of such preferences? If the injury arose after their formation, Kao's method of playing on the lute was natural. If the injury arose before their formation, there would have been no such playing on the lute as Kao's²⁵.

Kao Wan's playing on the lute, Shih Kwang's indicating time with his staff, and Hui Tzu's (giving his views), while leaning against a dryandra tree (were all extraordinary). The knowledge of the three men (in their several arts) was nearly perfect, and therefore they practised them to the end of their lives. They loved them because they were different from those of others. They loved them and wished to make them known to others. But as they could not be made clear, though they tried to make them so, they ended with the obscure (discussions) about 'the hard' and 'the White.' And their sons²⁶, moreover, with all the threads of their fathers' compositions, yet to the end of their lives accomplished nothing. If they, proceeding in this way, could be said to have succeeded, then am I also successful; if they cannot be pronounced successful, neither I nor any other can succeed.

Therefore the scintillations of light from the midst of confusion and perplexity are indeed valued by the sagely man; but not to use one's own views and to take his position on the ordinary views is what is called using the (proper) light.

6. But here now are some other sayings²⁷:—I do not know whether they are of the same character as those which I have already given, or of a different character. Whether they be of the same character or not when looked at along with them, they have a character of their own, which cannot be distinguished from the others. But though this be the case, let me try to explain myself.

There was a beginning. There was a beginning before that beginning²⁸. There was a beginning previous to that beginning before there was the beginning. There was existence; there had been no existence. There was no existence before the beginning of that no existence²⁸. There was no existence previous to the no existence before there was the beginning of the no existence. If suddenly there was nonexistence, we do not know whether it was really anything existing, or really not existing. Now I have said what I have said, but I do not know whether what I have said be really anything to the point or not.

Under heaven there is nothing greater than the tip of an autumn down, and the Thai mountain is small. There is no one more long-lived than a child which dies prematurely, and Phang Zu did not live out his time. Heaven, Earth, and I were produced together, and all things and I are one. Since they are one, can there be speech about them? But since they are spoken of as one, must there not be room for speech? One and Speech are two; two and one are three. Going on from this (in our enumeration), the most skilful reckoner cannot reach (the end of the necessary numbers), and how much less can ordinary people do so! Therefore from non-existence we proceed to existence till we arrive at three; proceeding from existence to existence, to how many should we reach? Let us abjure such procedure, and simply rest here²⁹.

7. The Tao at first met with no responsive recognition. Speech at first had no constant forms of expression. Because of this there came the demarcations (of different views). Let me describe those demarcations:—they are the Left and the Right³⁰; the Relations and their Obligations³¹; Classifications³² and their Distinctions; Emulations and Contentions. These are what are called 'the Eight Qualities.' Outside the limits of the world of men³³, the sage occupies his thoughts, but does not discuss about anything; inside those limits he occupies his thoughts, but does not pass any judgments. In the Khun Khiu³⁴, which embraces the history of the former kings, the sage indicates his judgments, but does not argue (in vindication of them). Thus it is that he separates his characters from one another without appearing to do so, and argues without the form of argument. How does he do so? The sage cherishes his views in his own breast, while men generally state theirs argumentatively, to show them to others. Hence we have the saying, 'Disputation is a proof of not seeing clearly.'

The Great Tao³⁵ does not admit of being praised. The Great Argument does not require words. Great Benevolence is not (officiously) benevolent. Great Disinterestedness does not vaunt its humility. Great Courage is not seen in stubborn bravery.

The Tao that is displayed is not the Tao. Words that are argumentative do not reach the point. Benevolence that is constantly exercised does not accomplish its object. Disinterestedness that vaunts its purity is not genuine. Courage that is most stubborn is ineffectual. These five seem to be round (and complete), but they tend to become square (and immovable)³⁶. Therefore the knowledge that stops at what it does not know is the greatest. Who knows the argument that needs no words, and the Way that is not to be trodden³⁷?

He who is able to know this has what is called 'The Heavenly Treasure-house³⁸.' He may pour into it without its being filled; he may pour from it without its being exhausted; and all the while he does not know whence (the supply) comes. This is what is called 'The Store of Light³⁸.'

Therefore of old Yao asked Shun, saying, 'I wish to smite (the rulers of) Zung, Kwei, and Hsu-ao³⁹. Even when standing in my court, I cannot get them out of my mind. How is it so?' Shun replied, 'Those three rulers live (in their little states) as if they were among the mugwort and other brushwood;—how is it that you cannot get them out of your mind? Formerly, ten suns came out together, and all things were illuminated by them;—how much should (your) virtue exceed (all) suns!'

8. Nieh Khueh⁴⁰ asked Wang I⁴⁰, saying, 'Do you know, Sir, what all creatures agree in approving and affirming?' 'How should I know it?' was the reply. 'Do you know what it is that you do not know?' asked the other again, and he got the same reply. He asked a third time,—'Then are all creatures thus without knowledge?' and Wang I answered as before, (adding however), 'Notwithstanding, I will try and explain my meaning. How do you know that when I say "I know it," I really (am showing that) I do not know it, and that when I say "I do not know it," I really am showing that I do know it⁴¹.' And let me ask you some questions:—'If a man sleep in a damp place, he will have a pain in his loins, and half his body will be as if it were dead; but will it be so with an eel? If he be living in a tree, he will be frightened and all in a tremble; but will it be so with a monkey? And does any one of the three know his right place? Men eat animals that have been fed on grain and grass; deer feed on the thickset grass; centipedes enjoy small snakes; owls and crows delight in mice; but does any one of the four know the right taste? The dog-headed monkey finds its mate in the female gibbon; the elk and the axis deer cohabit; and the eel enjoys itself with other fishes. Mao Zhiang⁴² and Li Ki⁴² were accounted by men to be most beautiful, but when fishes saw them, they dived deep in the water from them; when birds, they flew from them aloft; and when deer saw them, they separated and fled away⁴³. But did any of these four know which in the world is the right female attraction? As I look at the matter, the first principles of benevolence and righteousness and the paths of approval and disapproval are inextricably mixed and confused together:—how is it possible that I should know how to discriminate among them?'

Nieh Khueh said (further), 'Since you, Sir, do not know what is advantageous and what is hurtful, is the Perfect man also in the same way without the knowledge of them?' Wang i replied, 'The Perfect man is spirit-like. Great lakes might be boiling about him, and he would not feel their heat; the Ho and the Han might be frozen up, and he would not feel the cold; the hurrying thunderbolts might split the mountains, and the wind shake the ocean, without being able to make him afraid. Being such, he mounts on the clouds of the air, rides on the sun and moon, and rambles at ease beyond the four seas. Neither death nor life makes any change in him, and how much less should the considerations of advantage and injury do so⁴⁴!'

9. Khu Zhiao Tzu⁴⁵ asked Khang-wu Dze⁴⁵, saying, 'I heard the Master (speaking of such language as the following):—"The sagely man does not occupy himself with worldly affairs. He does not put himself in the way of what is profitable, nor try to avoid what is hurtful; he has no pleasure in seeking (for anything from any one); he does not care to be found in (any established) Way; he speaks without speaking; he does not speak when he speaks; thus finding his enjoyment outside the dust and dirt (of the world)." The Master considered all this to be a shoreless flow of mere words, and I consider it to describe the course of the Mysterious Way.—What do you, Sir, think of it?' Khang-wu dze replied, 'The hearing of such words would have perplexed even Hwang-Ti, and how should Khiu be competent to understand them? And you, moreover, are too hasty in forming your estimate (of their meaning). You see the egg, and (immediately) look out for the cock (that is to be hatched from it); you see the bow, and (immediately) look out for the dove (that is to be brought down by it) being roasted. I will try to explain the thing to you in a rough way; do you in the same way listen to me.

'How could any one stand by the side of the sun and moon, and hold under his arm all space and all time? (Such language only means that the sagely man) keeps his mouth shut, and puts aside questions that are uncertain and dark; making his inferior capacities unite with him in honouring (the One Lord). Men in general bustle about and toil; the sagely man seems stupid and to know nothing⁴⁶. He blends ten thousand years together in the one (conception of time); the myriad things all pursue their spontaneous course, and they are all before him as doing so.

'How do I know that the love of life is not a delusion? and that the dislike of death is not like a young person's losing his way, and not knowing that he is (really) going home? Li Ki⁴⁷ was a daughter of the border Warden of Ai. When (the ruler of) the state of Zin first got possession of her, she wept till the tears wetted all the front of her dress. But when she came to the place of the king⁴⁸, shared with him his luxurious couch, and ate his grain-and-grass-fed meat, then she regretted that she had wept. How do I know that the dead do not repent of their former craving for life?

'Those who dream of (the pleasures of) drinking may in the morning wail and weep; those who dream of wailing and weeping may in the morning be going out to hunt. When they were dreaming they did not know it was a dream; in their dream they may even have tried to interpret it⁴⁹; but when they awoke they knew that it a dream. And there is the great awaking, after which we shall know that this life was a great dream⁵⁰. All the while, the stupid think they are awake, and with nice discrimination insist on their knowledge; now playing the part of rulers, and now of grooms. Bigoted was that Khiu! He and you are both dreaming. I who say that you are dreaming am dreaming myself. These words seem very strange; but if after ten thousand ages we once meet with a great sage who knows how to explain them, it will be as if we met him (unexpectedly) some morning or evening.

10. 'Since you made me enter into this discussion with you, if you have got the better of me and not I of you, are you indeed right, and I indeed wrong? If I have got the better of you and not you of me, am I indeed right and you indeed wrong? Is the one of us right and the other wrong? are we both right or both wrong? Since we cannot come to a mutual and common understanding, men will certainly continue in darkness on the subject.

'Whom shall I employ to adjudicate in the matter? If I employ one who agrees with you, how can he, agreeing with you, do so correctly? And the same may be said, if I employ one who agrees with me. It will be the same if I employ one who differs from us both or one who agrees with us both. In this way I and you and those others would all not be able to come to a mutual understanding; and shall we then wait for that (great sage)? (We need not do so.) To wait on others to learn how conflicting opinions are changed is simply like not so waiting at all. The harmonising of them is to be found in the invisible operation of Heaven, and by following this on into the unlimited past. It is by this method that we can complete our years (without our minds being disturbed)⁵¹.

'What is meant by harmonising (conflicting opinions) in the invisible operation of Heaven? There is the affirmation and the denial of it; and there is the assertion of an opinion and the rejection of it. If the affirmation be according to the reality of the fact, it is certainly different from the denial of it:—there can be no dispute about that. If the assertion of an opinion be correct, it is certainly different from its rejection:—neither can there be any dispute about that. Let us forget the lapse of time; let us forget the conflict of opinions. Let us make our appeal to the Infinite, and take up our position there⁵².'

11. The Penumbra asked the Shadow⁵³, saying, 'Formerly you were walking on, and now you have stopped; formerly you were sitting, and now you have risen up:—how is it that you are so without stability?' The Shadow replied, 'I wait for the movements of something else to do what I do, and that something else on which I wait waits further ⁵⁴. My waiting,—is it for the scales of a snake, or the wings of a cicada⁵⁵? How should I know why I do one thing, or do not do another⁵⁶?

'Formerly, I, Kwang Kau, dreamt that I was a butterfly, a butterfly flying about, feeling that it was enjoying itself I did not know that it was Kau. Suddenly I awoke, and was myself again, the veritable Kau. I did not know whether it had formerly been Kau dreaming that he was a butterfly, or it was now a butterfly dreaming that it was Kau. But between Kau and a butterfly there must be a difference⁵⁷. This is a case of what is called the Transformation of Things⁵⁷.'

庄子·内篇·齐物论第二

南郭子綦隐机而坐，仰天而嘘，苔焉似丧其耦。颜成子游立侍乎前
，曰：“何居乎？形固可使如槁木，而心固可使如死灰乎？今之隐机
者，非昔之隐机者也？”子綦曰：“偃，不亦善乎而问之也！今者吾
丧我，汝知之乎？女闻人籁而未闻地籁，女闻地籁而不闻天籁夫！”

子游曰：“敢问其方。”子綦曰：“夫大块噫气，其名为风。是唯
无作，作则万窍怒囗（左“口”右“号”）。而独不闻之囗囗（“戮
去“戈”音ｌｉｕ４）乎？山林之畏佳，大木而围之窍穴，似鼻，似
口，似耳，似笄，似圈，似舀，似洼者，似污者。激者、囗（左“讠
”右“高”音ｘｉａｏ４）者、叱者、吸者、叫者、囗（左“讠”右
“豪”音ｈａｏ２）者、囗（上“宀”下“夭”音ｙａｏ１）者，咬
者，前者唱于而随者唱喁，泠风则小和，飘风则大和，厉风济早众窍
为虚。而独不见之调调之刀刀乎？”

子游曰：“地籁则众窍是已，人籁遇比竹是已，敢问天籁。”子綦
曰：“夫吹万不同，而使其自已也。咸其自取，怒者其谁邪？”

大知闲闲，小知间间。大言炎炎，小言詹詹。其寐也魂交，其觉也
形开。与接为囗（左“扌”右“勾”），日以心斗。缦者、窖者、密
者。小恐惴惴，大恐缦缦。其发若机栝，其司是非之谓也；其留如诅
盟，其守胜之谓也；其杀若秋冬，以言其日消也；其溺之所为之，不
可使复之也；其厌也如缄，以言其都洫也；近死之心，莫使复阳也。
喜怒哀乐，虑叹变蜇，姚佚启态——乐出虚，蒸成菌。日夜相代乎前
而莫知其所萌。已乎，已乎！旦暮得此，其所由以生乎！

非彼无我，非我无所取。是亦近矣，而不知其所为使。若有真宰，
而特不得其囗（左“目”右“关”借为朕）。可行己信，而不见其形
，有情而无形。面骸、九窍、六藏、赅而存焉，吾谁与为亲？汝皆说
之乎？其有私焉？如是皆有为臣妾乎？其臣妾不足以相治乎？其有真
君存焉！如求得其情与不得，无益损乎其真。一受其成形，不亡以待
尽。与物相刃相靡，其行尽如驰而莫之能止，不亦悲乎！终身役役而
不见其成功，囗（上“艹”中“人”下“小”音ｎｉｅ２）然疲役而
不知其所归，可不哀邪！人谓之不死，奚益！其形化，其心与之然，
可不谓大哀乎？人之生也，固若是芒乎？其我独芒，而人亦有不芒者
乎？

夫随其成心而师之，谁独且无师乎？奚必知代而自取者有之？愚者
与有焉！未成乎心而有是非，是今日适越而昔至也。是以无有为有。
无有为有，虽有神禹且不能知，吾独且奈何哉！

夫言非吹也，言者有言。其所言者特未定也。果有言邪？其未尝有
言邪？其以为异于囗（“彀”字以“鸟”代“弓”音ｋｏｕ４）音，
亦有辩乎？其无辩乎？道恶乎隐而有真伪？言恶乎隐而有是非？道恶
乎往而不存？言恶乎存而不可？道隐于小成，言隐于荣华。故有儒墨
之是非，以是其所非而非其所是。欲是其所非而非其所是，则莫若以
明。

物无非彼，物无非是。自彼则不见，自知则知之。故曰：彼出于是
，是亦因彼。彼是方生之说也。虽然，方生方死，方死方生；方可方
不可，方不可方可；因是因非，因非因是。是以圣人不由而照之于天
，亦因是也。是亦彼也，彼亦是也。彼亦一是非，此亦一是非，果且
有彼是乎哉？果且无彼是乎哉？彼是莫得其偶，谓之道枢。枢始得其
环中，以应无穷。是亦一无穷，非亦一无穷也。故曰：莫若以明。

以指喻指之非指，不若以非指喻指之非指也；以马喻马之非马，不
若以非马喻马之非马也。天地一指也，万物一马也。

可乎可，不可乎不可。道行之而成，物谓之而然。恶乎然？然于然
。恶乎不然？不然于不然。物固有所然，物固有所可。无物不然，无
物不可。故为是举莛与楹，厉与西施，恢诡谲怪，道通为一。

其分也，成也；其成也，毁也。凡物无成与毁，复通为一。唯达者
知通为一，为是不用而寓诸庸。庸也者，用也；用也者，通也；通也
者，得也。适得而几矣。因是已，已而不知其然谓之道。劳神明为一
而不知其同也，谓之“朝三”。何谓“朝三”？狙公赋囗（上“艹”
下“予”音ｘｕ４），曰：“朝三而暮四。”众狙皆怒。曰：“然则
朝四而暮三。”众狙皆悦。名实未亏而喜怒为用，亦因是也。是以圣
人和之以是非而休乎天钧，是之谓两行。

古之人，其知有所至矣。恶乎至？有以为未始有物者，至矣，尽矣
，不可以加矣！其次以为有物矣，而未始有封也。其次以为有封焉，
而未始有是非也。是非之彰也，道之所以亏，爱之所以成。果且有成
与亏乎哉？果且无成与亏乎哉？有成与亏，故昭氏之鼓琴也；无成与
亏，故昭氏之不鼓琴也。昭文之鼓琴也，师旷之枝策也，惠子之据梧
也，三子之知几乎皆其盛者也，故载之末年。唯其好之也以异于彼，
其好之也欲以明之。彼非所明而明之，故以坚白之昧终。而其子又以
文之纶终，终身无成。若是而可谓成乎，虽我亦成也；若是而不可谓
成乎，物与我无成也。是故滑疑之耀，圣人之所图也。为是不用而寓
诸庸，此之谓“以明”。

今且有言于此，不知其与是类乎？其与是不类乎？类与不类，相与
为类，则与彼无以异矣。虽然，请尝言之：有始也者，有未始有始也
者，有未始有夫未始有始也者；有有也者，有无也者，有未始有无也
者，有未始有夫未始有无也者。俄而有无矣，而未知有无之果孰有孰
无也。今我则已有有谓矣，而未知吾所谓之其果有谓乎？其果无谓乎
？

夫天下莫大于秋豪之末，而大山为小；莫寿于殇子，而彭祖为夭。
天地与我并生，而万物与我为一。既已为一矣，且得有言乎？既已谓
之一矣，且得无言乎？一与言为二，二与一为三。自此以往，巧历不
能得，而况其凡乎！故自无适有，以至于三，而况自有适有乎！无适
焉，因是已！
夫道未始有封，言未始有常，为是而有畛也。请言其畛：有左有右
，有伦有义，有分有辩，有竞有争，此之谓八德。六合之外，圣人存
而不论；六合之内，圣人论而不议；春秋经世先王之志，圣人议而不
辩。

故分也者，有不分也；辩也者，有不辩也。曰：“何也？”“圣人
怀之，众人辩之以相示也。故曰：辩也者，有不见也。”夫大道不称
，大辩不言，大仁不仁，大廉不谦，大勇不忮。道昭而不道，言辩而
不及，仁常而不成，廉清而不信，勇忮而不成。五者圆而几向方矣！
故知止其所不知，至矣。孰知不言之辩，不道之道？若有能知，此之
谓天府。注焉而不满，酌焉而不竭，而不知其所由来，此之谓葆光。

故昔者尧问于舜曰：“我欲伐宗脍、胥、敖，南面而不释然。其故
何也？”舜曰：“夫三子者，犹存乎蓬艾之间。若不释然何哉！昔者
十日并出，万物皆照，而况德之进乎日者乎！”

ｎｉｅ４缺问乎王倪曰：“子知物之所同是乎？”曰：“吾恶乎知
之！”“子知子之所不知邪？”曰：“吾恶乎知之！”“然则物无知
邪？”曰：“吾恶乎知之！虽然，尝试言之：庸讵知吾所谓知之非不
知邪？庸讵知吾所谓不知之非知邪？且吾尝试问乎女：民湿寝则腰疾
偏死，鳅然乎哉？木处则惴栗恂惧，囗（“缓”字以“犭”代“纟”
）猴然乎哉？三者孰知正处？民食刍豢，麋鹿食荐，囗（左“虫”右
“即”）蛆甘带，鸱鸦耆鼠，四者孰知正味？猿囗（左“犭”右“扁
”）狙以为雌，麋与鹿交，鳅与鱼游。毛嫱丽姬，人之所美也；鱼见
之深入，鸟见之高飞，麋鹿见之决骤，四者孰知天下之正色哉？自我
观之，仁义之端，是非之涂，樊然淆乱，吾恶能知其辩！”ｎｉｅ４
缺曰：“子不知利害，则至人固不知利害乎？”王倪曰：“至人神矣
！大泽焚而不能热，河汉冱而不能寒，疾雷破山、飘风振海而不能惊
。若然者，乘支气，骑日月，而游乎四海之外，死生无变于己，而况
利害之端乎！”

瞿鹊子问乎长梧子曰：“吾闻诸夫子：圣人不从事于务，不就利，
不违害，不喜求，不缘道，无谓有谓，有谓无谓，而游乎尘垢之外。
夫子以为孟浪之言，而我以为妙道之行也。吾子以为奚若？”

长梧子曰：“是黄帝之所听荧也，而丘也何足以知之！且女亦大早
计，见卵而求时夜，见弹而求囗（左“号”右“鸟”音ｘｉａｏ１）
炙。予尝为女妄言之，女以妄听之。奚旁日月，挟宇宙，为其吻合，
置其滑囗（左“氵”右“昏”音ｈｕｎ１），以隶相尊？众人役役，
圣人愚钝，参万岁而一成纯。万物尽然，而以是相蕴。予恶乎知说生
之非惑邪！予恶乎知恶死之非弱丧而不知归者邪！

丽之姬，艾封人之子也。晋国之始得之也，涕泣沾襟。及其至于王
所，与王同筐床，食刍豢，而后悔其泣也。予恶乎知夫死者不悔其始
之蕲生乎？梦饮酒者，旦而哭泣；梦哭泣者，旦而田猎。方其梦也，
不知其梦也。梦之中又占其梦焉，觉而后知其梦也。且有大觉而后知
此其大梦也，而愚者自以为觉，窃窃然知之。“君乎！牧乎！”固哉
！丘也与女皆梦也，予谓女梦亦梦也。是其言也，其名为吊诡。万世
之后而一遇大圣知其解者，是旦暮遇之也。

既使我与若辩矣，若胜我，我不若胜，若果是也？我果非也邪？我
胜若，若不吾胜，我果是也？而果非也邪？其或是也？其或非也邪？
其俱是也？其俱非也邪？我与若不能相知也。则人固受其囗（左“黑
右“甚”音ｔａｎ３）囗（外“门”内“音”音ａｎ４），吾谁使正
之？使同乎若者正之，既与若同矣，恶能正之？使同乎我者正之，既
同乎我矣，恶能正之？使异乎我与若者正之，既异乎我与若矣，恶能
正之？使同乎我与若者正之，既同乎我与若矣，恶能正之？然则我与
若与人俱不能相知也，而待彼也邪？”

“何谓和之以天倪？”曰：“是不是，然不然。是若果是也，则是
之异乎不是也亦无辩；然若果然也，则然之异乎不然也亦无辩。化声
之相待，若其不相待。和之以天倪，因之以曼衍，所以穷年也。忘年
忘义，振于无竟，故寓诸无竟。”

罔两问景曰：“曩子行，今子止；曩子坐，今子起。何其无特操与
？”景曰：“吾有待而然者邪？吾所待又有待而然者邪？吾待蛇囗（
左“虫”右“付”音ｆｕ４）蜩翼邪？恶识所以然？恶识所以不然？
”

昔者庄周梦为胡蝶，栩栩然胡蝶也。自喻适志与！不知周也。俄然
觉，则囗囗（上“艹”下“遽”音ｊｕ４）然周也。不知周之梦为胡
蝶与？胡蝶之梦为周与？周与胡蝶则必有分矣。此之谓物化。

Footnotes

back ¹ See pp. 128-130.

back ² Nan-kwo, 'the southern suburb,' had probably been the quarter where Dze-khi had resided, and is used as his surname. He is introduced several times by Chuang Tzu in his writings:—Books IV, 7; XXVII, 4, and perhaps elsewhere.

back ³ We have the surname of this disciple, Yen (###); his name, Yen (###); his honorary or posthumous epithet (Khang); and his ordinary appellation, Dze-yu. The use of the epithet shows that he and his master had lived before our author.

back ⁴ 'He had lost himself;' that is, he had become unconscious of all around him, and even of himself, as if he were about to enter {footnote p. 177} into the state of Ian Immortal,' a mild form of the Buddhistic samadhi. But his attitude and appearance were intended by Chuang Tzu to indicate what should be the mental condition in reference to the inquiry pursued in the Book;—a condition, it appears to me, of agnosticism. See the account of Lao Tzu in a similar trance in Book XXI, par. 4.

back ⁵ The Chinese term here (lai) denotes a reed or pipe, with three holes, by a combination of which there was formed the rudimentary or reed organ. Our author uses it for the sounds or notes heard in nature, various as the various opinions of men in their discussions about things.

back ⁶ The sounds of Earth have been described fully and graphically. Of the sounds of Man very little is said, but they form the subject of the next paragraph. Nothing is said in answer to the disciple's inquiry about the notes of Heaven. It is intimated, however, that there is no necessity to introduce any foreign Influence or Power like Heaven in connexion. with the notes of Earth. The term Heaven, indeed, is about to pass with our author into a mere synonym of Tao, the natural 'course' of the phenomena of men and things.

back ⁷ Words are the 'sounds' of Man; and knowledge is the 'wind' by which they are excited.

back ⁸ A true Governor' would be a good enough translation for 'the true God.' But Chuang Tzu did not admit any supernatural Power or Being as working in man. His true Governor was the Tao; and this will be increasingly evident as we proceed with the study of his Books.

back ⁹ The name 'Ruler' is different from 'Governor' above; but they both indicate the same concept in the author's mind.

back ¹⁰ The proper reply to this would be that the mind is not dissolved with the body; and Chuang Tzu's real opinion, as we shall find, was that life and death were but phases in the phenomenal development. But the course of his argument suggests to us the question here, 'Is life worth living?'

back ¹¹ This 'teacher' is 'the Tao.'

back ¹² Expressing the absurdity of the case. This is one of the sayings of Hui Tzu;—see Book XXXIII, par. 7.

back ¹³ The successor and counsellor of Shun, who coped with and remedied the flood of Yao.

back ¹⁴ The followers of Confucius.

back ¹⁵ The disciples of Mih Tzu, or Mih Ti, the heresiarch, whom Mencius attacked so fiercely;—see Mencius, V, 1, 5, e t al. His era must be assigned between Confucius and Mencius.

back ¹⁶ That is, the perfect mind, the principle of the Tao.

back ¹⁷ As taught by Hui Tzu;—see XXXIII, 7; but it is doubtful if the quotation from Hui's teaching be complete.

back ¹⁸ Equivalent to the Tao. See on the use in Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu of the term 'Heaven,' in the Introduction, pp. 16-18.

back ¹⁹ The language of our author here is understood to have reference to the views of Kung-sun Lung, a contemporary of Hui Tzu, and a sophist like him. One of his treatises or arguments had the title of 'The White Horse,' and another that of 'Pointing to Things.' If these had been preserved, we might have seen more clearly the appropriateness of the text here. But the illustration of the monkeys and their actions shows us the scope of the whole paragraph to be that controversialists, whose views are substantially the same, may yet differ, and that with heat, in words.

back ²⁰ The character in the text means both 'a stalk of grain' and a horizontal beam.' Each meaning has its advocates here.

back ²¹ A famous beauty, a courtezan presented by the king of Yueh to his enemy, the king of Wu, and who hastened on his progress to ruin and death, she herself perishing at the same time.

back ²² Literally, 'the Heaven-Mould or Moulder,'—another name for the Tao, by which all things are fashioned.

back ²³ See the same passage in Book XXIII, par. 10.

back ²⁴ The ordinary reading here is fang (###) 'a boundary' or 'distinctive limit.' Lin Hsi-hung adopts the reading ###, 'a response,' and I have followed him.

back ²⁵ Kao Wan and Shih Kwang were both musicians of the state of Zin. Shih, which appears as Kwang's surname, was his denomination as 'music-master.' It is difficult to understand the reason why Chuang Tzu introduces these men and their ways, or how it helps his argument.

back ²⁶ Perhaps we should read here 'son,' with special reference to the son of Hui-Sze.

back ²⁷ Referring, I think, to those below commencing 'There was a beginning.'

back ²⁸ That is, looking at things from the standpoint of an original non-existence, and discarding all considerations of space and time.

back ²⁹ On this concluding clause, Ziao Hung says:—'Avoiding such procedure, there will be no affirmations and denials (no contraries). The phrase ### occurs in the Book several times, and interpreters have missed its meaning from not observing that ### serve merely as a final particle, and often have the ### added to them, without affecting its meaning.' See also Wang Yin on the usages of ### in the ###, ch. 1208, art. 6.

back ³⁰ That is, direct opposites.

back ³¹ Literally 'righteousnesses;' the proper way of dealing with the relations.

back ³² Literally, 'separations.'

back ³³ Literally, 'the six conjunctions,' meaning the four cardinal points of space, with the zenith and nadir; sometimes a name for the universe of space. Here we must restrict the meaning as I have done.

back ³⁴ 'The Spring and Autumn;'—Confucius's Annals of Lu, here complimented by Chuang Tzu. See in Mencius, IV, ii, 21.

back ³⁵ Compare the Tao Teh King, ch. 25, et al.

back ³⁶ Compare the use of ### in the Shu King, I, iii, 11.

back ³⁷ The classic of Lao, in chaps. 1, 2.

back ³⁸ Names for the Tao.

back ³⁹ Three small states. Is Yao's wish to smite an instance of the 'quality' of 'emulation' or jealousy?

back ⁴⁰ Both Taoistic worthies of the time of Yao, supposed to have been two of the Perfect Ones whom Yao visited on the distant hill of Ku-shih (I, par. 6). According to Hwang Mi, Wang I was the teacher of Nieh Khueh, and he again of Hsu Yu.

back ⁴¹ Compare par. 1 of Book XXII.

back ⁴² Not thinking them beautiful, as men did, but frightened and repelled by them.

back ⁴³ Compare Book 1, pars. 3 and 5.

back ⁴⁴ We know nothing of the former of these men, but what is mentioned here; the other appears also in Book XXV, 6, q. v. If 'the master' that immediately follows be Confucius they must have been contemporary with him. The Khiu in Khang-wu's reply would seem to make it certain 'the master' was Confucius, but the oldest critics, and some modern ones as well, think that Khang-wu's name was also Khiu. But this view is attended with more difficulties than the other. By the clause interjected in the translation after the first 'Master,' I have avoided the incongruity of ascribing the long description of Taoism to Confucius.

back ⁴⁵ Compare Lao Tzu's account of himself in his Work, ch. 20.

back ⁴⁶ Two famous beauties;—the former, a contemporary of Hsi Shih (par. 4, note 2), and like her also, of the state of Yueh; the latter, the daughter of a barbarian chief among the Western Jung. She was captured by duke Hsien of Zin, in B. C. 672. He subsequently made her his wife,—to the great injury of his family and state.

back ⁴⁷ See note 2 on page 191. The lady is there said to have been the daughter of a barbarian chief; here she appears as the child of the border Warden of Ai. But her maiden surname of Ki (###) shows her father must have been a scion of the royal family of Kau. Had he forsaken his wardenship, and joined one of the Ti tribes, which had adopted him as its chief?

back ⁴⁸ Zin was only a marquisate. How does Chuang Tzu speak of its ruler as 'a king?'

back ⁴⁹ This could not be; a man does not come to himself in his dream, and in that state try to interpret it.

back ⁵⁰ Compare XVIII, par. 4.

back ⁵¹ See this passage again in Book XXVII, par. i, where the phrase which I have called here 'the invisible operation of Heaven,' is said to be the same as 'the Heavenly Mould or Moulder,' that is, the Heavenly Fashioner, one of the Taoistic names for the Tao.

back ⁵² That is, all things being traced up to the unity of the Tao, we have found the pivot to which all conflicting opinions, all affirmations, all denials, all positions and negatives converge, and bring to bear on them the proper light of the mind. Compare paragraph 3.

back ⁵³ A story to the same effect as this here, with some textual variations, occurs in Book XXVII, immediately after par. 1 referred to above.

back ⁵⁴ The mind cannot rest in second causes, and the first cause, if there be one, is inscrutable.

back ⁵⁵ Even these must wait for the will of the creature; but the case of the shadow is still more remarkable.

back ⁵⁶ 1 have put this interrogatively, as being more graphic, and because of the particle ###, which is generally, though not necessarily, interrogative.

back ⁵⁷ Hsuan Ying, in his remarks on these two sentences, brings out the force of the story very successfully:—'Looking at them in their ordinary appearance, there was necessarily a difference between them, but in the delusion of the dream each of them appeared the other, and they could not distinguish themselves! Kau could be a butterfly, and the butterfly could be Kau;—we may see that in the world all traces of that and this may pass away, as they come under the influence of transformations.' For the phrase, 'the transformation of things,' see in Book X1, par. 5, et al. But the Taoism here can hardly be distinguished from the Buddhism that holds that all human experience is merely so much maya or illusion.